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Boga domu zaniepokoiłeś. Obudził się kursarikkum. Relacje pomiędzy kultem domowym a kultem państwowym na Wschodzie starożytnym
Nowicki, Stefan (Wydawnictwo KUL, 2010)
The aim of this article is to discuss the role of so-called private religion in the life of the Ancient Near Eastern peoples. The most important question in this matter is the origins and basic form of this kind of religion, especially its cult and private gods. These gods seem to be remains of the tribal life, where the cult of ancestors as well as protective deities was regarded the most important for the survival of family, society and tribe. There is a high probability that the state religion had originated from the private religion of those families, which later became royal, so their religion also turned into official religion of their states. We can also assume that, independently from existing different forms of private religion, “common religion” was growing up within developing societies, especially sedentists and farmers. By common religion we should understand all forms of the cults of natural powers, which are essential for those societies. The questions mentioned at the end of this article are the phenomenons of replacing private religion by official gods in the last centuries of Ancient Near Eastern civilizations and an absolute unique phenomenon of the Israeli’s religion, which, unlike all the others, has developed into monotheism.
Prawo boskie i prawo ludzkie. Sądownictwo starożytnego Izraela na tle praktyki mezopotamskiej
Nowicka, Dobromiła; Nowicki, Stefan (Wydawnictwo KUL, 2009)
The aim of this article is to confront Biblical and Mesopotamian lawsuits in order to find similarities and differences between them. However there are many works about laws, only few of them concern trial rules and judicial proceedings as well. The research on this field is a bit problematic because of lack of sources telling us about trials. This article is based mainly on Pentateuch and Laws of Hammurabi as the main sources, while other Mesopotamian codes and the Old Testament’s books are only mentioned. Because of similarities in laws and traditions there are also some notes about Roman law as the base of contemporary judicial proceeding’s tradition, to show how old some principles of society living are. In my research I concluded, that Biblical and Mesopotamian trials are very similar, with only few differences. We can reconstruct it due to following stages: Trial started with accusation in front of an official, priest, old tribemen or judge (depend on times and circumstances), which must have been proved by accuser. The most important proof was the hearing of witnesses (at least two) or (especially in civil trial) written agreement. After proving guilty judges must have assisted the penalty execution, which could be corporal, financial (rather rare) or capital. We can also point out, that people often tried to change the judges’ decision by the means of various gifts. We don’t know it explicitly, however in our sources some bad judges’ behaviors are mentioned – changing the verdict after the end of the trial, unjust verdicts in favor of rich and well-established men and against poor, orphans, widows etc. As the effect of such research, a very short but important question occurs. Are this law traditions different, and we should try to find similarities between them, or maybe – does the Biblical and Mesopotamian law have the roots of the same tradition (Amorite’s?), and we should rather look for differences between them as signs of different ways of development?
„Šul-utul, bóg króla, niósł lśniący kosz służący do pracy”. Religia królewska a religia rodzinna w starożytnej Mezopotamii
Nowicki, Stefan (Wydawnictwo KUL, 2012)
The aim of this article is mainly a comparison of “royal” and “family” religions in the ancient Near East. General question is the veraciousness of known textual sources, originating from urban environment. The image of a “nomad” is clear and extremely negative – an uncivilized savage, unaware of the proper religion and divine cult. Description of citizenship is completely different – citizens are noble, full of fear of gods, skilled in baking bread and brewing beer, namely – civilized. On the other hand, having plenty of proofs of close, long-lasting and quite friendly urban-nomad co-existence (chiefly in the area of trade) we are inclined to doubt in the truthfulness of cuneiform sources. Focusing on a patron-deity as a crucial factor in such a comparison, one can notice, that this kind of god was not specific only for nomadic but also for royal as well as family beliefs. Moreover, we must acknowledge, that all known ancient Near Eastern urban societies were to all appearance – at some stage of their development – also nomadic. If such, they also should have exercised the worship of various patron deities. This opinion can be supported by studying known royal inscriptions, both Sargonic and pre-Sargonic, where the presence of various “personal” deities could be discerned. Such observation can be hardly considered established, nevertheless it creates some possibilities. Can clan god and personal religion be recognized the forefathers of polytheistic as well as monotheistic faiths, both having the same roots, but different ways and environments of development? Further study is needed for definite response (if any possible), but in my opinion the obtainment of the affirmative one is very probable.